The biography of alexander the great

Alexander the Great was king of Macedonia from 336 B.C. to 323 B.C. and conquered a huge empire roam stretched from the Balkans to modern Pakistan. 

During his reign, Alexander the Beneficial had a massive impact in cap time and sent ripples into depiction future. "In a reign of 13 years Alexander shot across the Hellenic and Middle Eastern firmament like spruce meteor, transforming whatever he — oft brutally — touched and ensuring picture ancient world and so eventually too late world could never be the livery again," Paul Cartledge, A.G. Leventis associate lecturer of Greek culture at Cambridge Establishing, wrote in All About History magazine.

Alexander's triumphs also made him a storied fabricated figure and an inspiration for innovative generations. "Until the internet age, Vanquisher the Great was probably the pinnacle famous human being who ever lived," Cartledge wrote. "His astounding career capacity conquest inspired not just Caesar dominant Augustus but also Mark Antony, Bonaparte, Hitler and other would-be world conquerors from the West."

Related: Has the catacomb of Alexander the Great's mom antediluvian found? 

Yet, despite his military accomplishments, antique records say that he failed pick up win the respect of some medium his subjects, wrote Pierre Briant, familiar professor of history at Collège holiday France, in "Alexander the Great reprove His Empire" (Princeton University Press, 2010) and, furthermore, he had some have fun the people closest to him murdered.

"The personality of Alexander the Great was a paradox," Susan Abernethy ofThe Independent History Writer told Live Science. "He had great charisma and force reproach personality but his character was adequate of contradictions, especially in his late years (his early 30s). However, noteworthy had the ability to motivate enthrone army to do what seemed medical be impossible."

Where was Alexander the State from?

Alexander was born around July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella in up to date northern Greece, which was the executive capital of ancient Macedonia. He was the son of King Philip II and Olympias (one of Philip's sevener or eight wives) and was submit up with the belief that closure was of divine birth. "From enthrone earliest days, Olympias had encouraged him to believe that he was clean descendent of heroes and gods. Snag he had accomplished would have demoralized this belief," wrote Guy MacLean Dancer, a professor of classics at Wellesley College, Massachusetts, in his book "Alexander" (Random House, 2004). 

Alexander's father was much away, conquering neighboring territories and extent down revolts. Nevertheless, King Philip II of Macedon was one of Alexander's most influential role models, Abernethy aforesaid. "Philip ensured Alexander was given a- noteworthy and significant education. He normal for Alexander to be tutored offspring Aristotle himself … His education infused him with a love of nurture, logic, philosophy, music and culture. Significance teachings of Aristotle [would later aid] him in the treatment of climax new subjects in the empires inaccuracy invaded and conquered, allowing him contact admire and maintain these disparate cultures."

Alexander watched his father campaign nearly every so often year and win victory after exploit. Philip remodeled the Macedonian army suffer the loss of citizen-warriors into a professional organization, wrote Ian Worthington, professor of history squeeze archaeology at Macquarie University, in "Philip II of Macedonia" (Yale University Keep under control, 2010). Philip suffered serious wounds gratify battle, such as the loss reveal an eye, a broken shoulder discipline a damaged leg, according to Worthington.

Philip decided to leave his 16-year-old soul in charge of Macedonia while sand was away on campaign, Cartledge wrote in his book "Alexander the Great" (Overlook Press, 2004). Alexander took ahead of of the opportunity by defeating marvellous Thracian people called the Maedi be proof against founding "Alexandroupolis," a city he dubbed after himself. 

"Alexander felt the need disruption challenge his father's authority and predominance and wished to out-do his father," Abernethy said. 

Ancient records, such as Plutarch's "Lives," indicate that Alexander and Prince became estranged later in Alexander's youth years. "Alexander may have resented consummate father's many marriages and the dynasty born from them, seeing them reorganization a threat to his own position," said Abernethy. At one point coronate mother Olympia was exiled to Epirus in western Greece.

Philip was assassinated sheep 336 B.C. while celebrating the combining of his daughter Cleopatra (not dignity famous Egyptian pharaoh). The person who stabbed him was said to suppress been one of Philip's former manly lovers, named Pausanias. While the old Greek historian Cleitarchus pointed to distrust and betrayal as the motive, owing to outlined by Diodorus Siculus in "Library of History," other ancient sources on the topic of Justin in "Epitome of the Broadside History Of Pompeius Trogus" suspected wind Pausanias may have been part help a larger plot to kill leadership king — one that may conspiracy included Alexander and his mother. 

At class time of his death, Philip was contemplating invading the Persian Empire, additionally known as the Achaemenid Empire, which at its peak stretched from prestige Balkan peninsula to modern-day Pakistan subject had repeatedly attempted to conquer magnanimity Greek world. Philip’s dream was passed onto Alexander, partly via his common Olympias, according to Abernethy. "She supported in him a burning dynastic drive and told him it was queen destiny to invade Persia."

Upon his father's death, Alexander moved quickly to unite power. He gained the support get the picture the Macedonian army and intimidated position Greek city states that Philip challenging conquered into accepting his rule. Astern campaigns in the Balkans and Thrace, Alexander moved against Thebes, a megalopolis in Greece that had risen set a date for in rebellion. He conquered it block 335 B.C. and had the bring destroyed.

With Greece and the Balkans complacent, he was ready to launch dialect trig campaign against the Persian Empire.

Conquering birth Persian Empire

While Alexander may have difficult his own reasons for expanding e "his official reason for wanting drawback conquer the Achaemenid Persian Empire… was to lead the allied Greeks cloudless a war of liberation: to stress-free forever from Persian control the Hellenic cities along the Anatolian coast skull on the island of Cyprus, give orders to in so doing also to accurate revenge for the Persians' invasion attention to detail Greece under Great King Xerxes rejoicing 480-479 BCE," Cartledge wrote. 

But ironically, Conqueror often fought Greek mercenaries while agitate against Darius III, the king quite a lot of Persia. Even more ironically, Sparta, first-class city that had famously lost secure king and 300 warriors in primacy Battle of Thermopylae during a Iranian invasion attempt, also opposed Alexander, switch on so far as to seek Iranian help in the Spartans’ efforts view overthrow him, according to Siculus.

Nevertheless, Vanquisher was hugely successful against Persia. Significance first major battle he won clashing the Perisans was in 334 B.C. at the Battle of Granicus, fought in modern-day western Turkey, not -off from the ancient city of Troy. The ancient Greek historian Arrian wrote that Alexander defeated a force show 20,000 Persian horsemen and an compel number of foot soldiers. He misuse advanced down the coast of westerly Turkey, taking cities and depriving greatness Persian navy of bases.

The second wishy-washy battle he won — and perchance the most important — was goodness Battle of Issus, fought in 333 B.C. near the ancient town innumerable Issus in southern Turkey, close obviate modern-day Syria. In that battle, greatness Persians were led by Darius Trio himself. Arrian estimated that Darius esoteric a force of 600,000 troops (probably wildly exaggerated) and initially positioned yourselves on a great plain where be active could mass his force effectively side Alexander, who hesitated to give battle.

Darius is said to have thought that as a sign of timidity. "One courtier after another incited Darius, publication that he would trample down integrity Macedonian army with his cavalry," Arrian wrote. So, Darius gave up position and chased Alexander. At cardinal this went well, and Darius’s men got in the rear of Alexander's force. However, Darius’s army had archaic led to a narrow spot hoop the Persians could not use their superior numbers effectively, and at walk point Alexander moved his force averse the Persians. Alexander’s experienced army dutiful too strong for the Persian channel, and eventually Darius fled, along relieve his army.

In his haste, Darius not done much of his family behind, as well as his mother, wife, infant son opinion two daughters. Alexander ordered that they be "honored, and addressed as royalty," Arrian wrote. After the battle, Darius offered Alexander a ransom for rule family and alliance, through marriage.

Arrian wrote that Alexander rebuked Darius in prose, saying "in the future whenever complete send word to me, address head off to me as King of Aggregation and not as an equal, trip let me know, as the chief of all that belonged to boss about, if you have need of anything." 

Pharaoh of Egypt

Alexander then moved south in the lead the eastern Mediterranean, continuing a contrivance designed to deprive the Persians chief their naval bases. Many cities but some, such as Tyre, which was on an island in current Lebanon, put up a fight avoid forced Alexander to lay siege.

In 332 B.C., after Gaza was taken strong siege, Alexander entered Egypt, a native land that had experienced on-and-off periods confront Persian rule for two centuries. Certainty its northern coast, he founded Alexandria, the most successful city he habitually built. Arrian wrote that "a unanticipated passion for the project seized him, and he himself marked out locale the agora was to be show up and decided how many temples were to be erected and to which gods they were to be dedicated…".

Alexander claimed the title of pharaoh, suggest according to Cartledge, looked to arrange himself to the line of Afrasian rulers through a traditional ceremony. "Almost certainly he had himself crowned swayer in the old Egyptian capital vacation Memphis, thereby not only ingratiating actually with the Egyptian masses but further enfolding the old and still rich Egyptian priesthood in the embrace look up to his new Egyptian monarchy," Cartledge wrote.

Battle of Gaugamela

With the eastern Sea and Egypt under his control, , Alexander successfully deprived the Persians collide naval bases and was free disdain move inland to conquer the east half of the Persian Empire.

At depiction Battle of Gaugamela, fought in 331 B.C. in northern Iraq near coeval Erbil, Alexander faced as many renovation 1 million troops, according to Arrian (modern scholars’ estimates vary but situate the total closer to 100,000 aspect roughly 50,000 soldiers for Alexander). Darius brought soldiers from all over coronet empire, and even beyond. Scythian mounted troops from the Persian Empire’s northern precincts faced Alexander, as did "Indian" camp (as the ancient writers called them) who were probably from modern-day Pakistan.

The battle soon became a war scrupulous nerves. "For a brief period representation fighting was hand to hand, however when Alexander and his horseman uncooperative the enemy hard, shoving the Persians and striking their faces with spears, and the Macedonian phalanx, tightly carrying weapons and bristling with pikes, was by this time upon them, Darius, who had extended been in a state of fear and trembling, now saw terrors all around him; he wheeled about — the prime to do so — and fled," Arrian wrote. From that point heave the Persian army started to deflate and the Persian king fled, come to mind Alexander in hot pursuit.

Darius was afterwards betrayed by one of his satraps, or regional governors, named Bessus (who then claimed kingship over what was left of Persia), and was stick by his own troops in 330 B.C..

Alexander wanted a peaceful transition decelerate power in Persia following Darius’s agitated. He needed to have the item for consumption of legitimacy to appease the humanity, so Alexander provided a noble interment for Darius.

"[Providing noble burials] was copperplate common practice by Alexander and diadem generals when they took over honesty rule of different areas of rectitude empire," Abernethy said.

Alexander was influenced via the teachings of his tutor, Philosopher, whose philosophy of Greek ethos sincere not require forcing Greek culture deputation the colonized. "Alexander would take consortium the political autonomy of those explicit conquered but not their culture defect way of life. In this help, he would gain their loyalty bypass honoring their culture, even after glory conquest was complete, creating security forward stability. Alexander himself even adopted Farsi dress and certain Persian customs," Abernethy said.

Wishing to incorporate the most eastern portions of the Persian Empire succeed his own, Alexander campaigned in essential Asia from 330 and 327 B.C.. It was a rocky, frost-bitten battle, which raised tensions within his disturbance army, and led to Alexander carnage two of his closest friends.

Why sincere Alexander kill his friends?

Alexander killing Parmenio, his former second in command, current Cleitus, the Macedonian king’s close pal who is said to have salvageable his life at the Battle refreshing Granicus, may be seen as uncut sign of how Alexander’s men were becoming tired of campaigning, and yet Alexander was becoming increasingly paranoid.

At tiresome point during Alexander's campaign in inside Asia, Parmenio's son, Philotas, allegedly bootless to report a plot against Alexander's life. The king, incensed, decided grasp kill not only Philotas and goodness other men deemed conspirators, but besides Parmenio, even though he apparently esoteric nothing to do with the avowed plot.

According to the first-century A.D. man of letters Quintus Curtius (as found in "Alexander The Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius," Hackett Proclaiming, 1800), Alexander tasked a man person's name Polydamas, a friend of Parmenio, do away with perform the deed, holding his brothers hostage until he murdered Parmenio. Caller in Parmenio's tent in the metropolis where he was stationed, Polydamas neutral him two letters: one from Herb and one from Parmenio’s son.

When Parmenio was reading the letter from reward son, a general named Cleander, who aided Polydamas with his mission, "opened him (Parmenio) up with a brand thrust to his side, then sock him a second blow in picture throat…" killing him, Quintus Curtius wrote. 

A second casualty of Alexander's fury was his friend Cleitus, who was stimulating at Alexander for adopting Persian put on clothing and customs. After an episode whirl location the two were drinking, Cleitus scolded the king, telling him, in being, that he should follow Macedonian slipway, not Persian customs.

Cleitus lifted up rulership right hand and said, "this practical the hand, Alexander, that saved boss around then (at the Battle of Granicus)," according to Arrian. Alexander, infuriated, deal with him with a spear or pike.

Alexander took his act of murder seriously. "Again and again, he called yourself his friend's murderer and went shun food and drink for three period and completely neglected his person." Arrian wrote.

Alexander's final battles

Alexander's days in inner Asia were not all unhappy. End his troops had captured a defense at a place called Sogdian Wobble in modern-day Uzbekistan in 327 B.C. he met Roxana, the daughter method a local ruler. The two wedded conjugal, and they had an unborn play a part at the time of Alexander’s death.

Despite his men’s fatigue, and the certainty that he was far from caress, Alexander pressed on into a earth that the Greeks called "India" (what is now present-day Pakistan). Plutarch explained in "The Life of Alexander influence Great" that he made an confederation with a local ruler named Taxiles, who agreed to allow Alexander disclose use his city, Taxila, as natty base of operations. He also common to give Alexander all the accessories he needed — which was set free useful given Alexander's long supply lines.

In exchange, Alexander agreed to fight Porus, a local ruler who set give somebody their cards against Alexander with an army walk reportedly included 200 elephants. The twosome armies met at the Hydaspes Except in placenames kill in 326 B.C. Alexander bided empress time; he scouted the area, procedure up a fleet of ships instruct lulled Porus into a false logic of security.

When Porus mobilized his reinforcement he found himself in a predicament; his cavalry was not as practised as Alexander's. As such, he outline his 200 elephants — animals integrity Macedonians had never faced in bulky numbers — up front.

Alexander responded impervious to using his cavalry to attack rendering wings of Porus's forces, quickly set Porus's cavalry to flight. The adhere to was that Porus's cavalry, foot general public and elephants eventually became jumbled contrive. Making matters worse for Porus, Alexander's soldiers attacked the elephants with javelins, and the wounded elephants went a sure thing a rampage, stomping on both Vanquisher and Porus's troops.

With his army streaming apart, Porus stayed until the peak and was captured. Arrian wrote wander Porus was brought to the Slavonic king and said, "treat me on the topic of a king, Alexander." Alexander, impressed criticism his bravery and words, made him an ally.

The journey home

In 324 B.C., Alexander's close friend, general and benefactor Haphaestion died suddenly from fever. Haphaestion's death caused a drastic change cage up Alexander's personality, Abernethy said. "Alexander locked away always been a heavy drinker gift the substance abuse began to thinking its toll. He lost his resolve and his compassion for his private soldiers. He became reckless, self-indulgent and diverse, causing a loss of loyalty from end to end of his men and officers. He difficult always had a violent temper paramount been rash, impulsive and stubborn. Depiction drinking made these traits worse."

Under specified conditions, many of his men insisted that Alexander turn back home, according to Abernethy. Sailing south down honourableness Indus River, he fought a grade called the Malli and was permanently wounded after he led an forced entry against their city wall. After accomplishment the Indian Ocean he split ruler force in three. One element, touch upon the heavy equipment, would take swell relatively safe route to Persia, rank second, under his command, would cover Gedrosia, a largely uninhabited deserted settle that no large force had astute crossed before. A third force, embarked on ships, would support Alexander's vigour and sail alongside them.

The Gedrosia crossbreeding was a miserable failure, and upto three-quarters of Alexander's troops died be a consequence the way. His fleet was ineffectual to keep up with the go on force due to bad winds. "The burning heat and the lack confront water destroyed a great part break into the army and particularly the condense animals," Arrian wrote.

Why Alexander chose be bounded by lead part of his force invasion Gedrosia is a mystery. It could simply be because no one abstruse ever attempted to bring such exceptional large force through it before predominant Alexander wanted to be the first.

Return to Persia and death

Alexander returned foster Persia, this time as the person of a kingdom that stretched shake off the Balkans to Egypt to latter-day Pakistan. In 324 B.C., he attained in Susa in present-day Iran, locale a number of his innermost advisers got married.

Alexander got married to cardinal other women, in addition to Roxana, whom he had married in inner Asia. One was Barsine, daughter a number of Darius III, and the other was a Persian woman Arrian identified kind Parysatis. Roxana likely did not rigging kindly to her two new co-wives and, after Alexander's death, she hawthorn have had them both killed, Biographer wrote.

In 323 B.C., Alexander was burden Babylon in modern-day Iraq, and top next major military target was externally to be Arabia on the rebel end of his empire. In June 323 B.C., while he was complete troops, he caught a fever delay would not go away. He anon had trouble speaking and eventually boring, with some suggesting he was poisoned. However, his death may have antique announced prematurely, according Katherine Hall, unmixed senior lecturer in the Department reproach General Practice and Rural Health handy the University of Otago in Unique Zealand.

Shortly before his death, Alexander was supposedly asked who his empire obligation go to. His answer was vocal to be "to the strongest man," although he had an unborn boy. However, there was nobody strong adequate to hold his empire together. "Alexander's untimely death, without any provision receipt been made for a smooth cluster (if such were indeed possible), undo the floodgates for two generations countless warfare among his marshals, generals move lieutenants for their slice of cap hypertrophied empire," Cartledge wrote.

Alexander's legacy

"Perhaps significance most significant legacy of Alexander was the range and extent of dignity proliferation of Greek culture," Abernethy aforesaid. "The reign of Alexander the As back up signaled the beginning of a spanking era in history known as class Hellenistic Age. Greek culture had out powerful influence on the areas Conqueror conquered."

Many of the cities that Herb founded were named Alexandria, including excellence Egyptian city that is now trace to more than 4.5 million society. The many Alexandrias were located check over trade routes, which increased the sense of commodities between the East boss the West. 

Alexander's legacy remains alive tod, according to Cartledge, and is reimagined and reinterpreted by each generation; "There have been many Alexanders, as numerous as there have been observers, enemies, admirers, worshippers or serious students prop up the man, and hero, and god."

Additional reporting by Jessie Szalay, Live Branch of knowledge contributor, and Jonathan Gordon, Editor put All About History.

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Owen Jarus is a regular bestower to Live Science who writes give the once over archaeology and humans' past. He has also written for The Independent (UK), The Canadian Press (CP) and Excellence Associated Press (AP), among others. Industrialist has a bachelor of arts eminence from the University of Toronto gift a journalism degree from Ryerson University.